Tropic Survival Skills
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The Basics
Wilderness Survival
Skills are the fundamental skills of survival
that will be needed for nearly every survival
scenario.
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Tropic Survival
[Reprinted
as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army from field
manual FM 21-76]
Most people think of the tropics
as a huge and forbidding tropical rain forest through
which every step taken must be hacked out, and where
every inch of the way is crawling with danger. Actually,
over half of the land in the tropics is cultivated in
some way.
A knowledge of field skills, the
ability to improvise, and the application of the principles
of survival will increase the prospects of survival.
Do not be afraid of being alone in the jungle; fear
will lead to panic. Panic will lead to exhaustion and
decrease your chance of survival.
Everything in the jungle thrives,
including disease germs and parasites that breed at
an alarming rate. Nature will provide water, food, and
plenty of materials to build shelters.
Indigenous peoples have lived for
millennia by hunting and gathering. However, it will
take an outsider some time to get used to the conditions
and the nonstop activity of tropical survival.
High temperatures, heavy rainfall,
and oppressive humidity characterize equatorial and
subtropical regions, except at high altitudes. At low
altitudes, temperature variation is seldom less than
10 degrees C and is often more than 35 degrees C. At
altitudes over 1,500 meters, ice often forms at night.
The rain has a cooling effect, but when it stops, the
temperature soars.
Rainfall is heavy, often with thunder
and lightning. Sudden rain beats on the tree canopy,
turning trickles into raging torrents and causing rivers
to rise. Just as suddenly, the rain stops. Violent storms
may occur, usually toward the end of the summer months.
Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons
develop over the sea and rush inland, causing tidal
waves and devastation ashore. In choosing campsites,
make sure you are above any potential flooding. Prevailing
winds vary between winter and summer. The dry season
has rain once a day and the monsoon has continuous rain.
In Southeast Asia, winds from the Indian Ocean bring
the monsoon, but it is dry when the wind blows from
the landmass of China.
Tropical day and night are of equal
length. Darkness falls quickly and daybreak is just
as sudden.
There is no standard jungle. The tropical
area may be any of the following:
- Rain forests.
- Secondary jungles.
- Semievergreen seasonal and monsoon
forests.
- Scrub and thorn forests.
- Savannas.
- Saltwater swamps.
- Freshwater swamps.
Tropical Rain Forests
The climate varies little in rain forests.
You find these forests across the equator in the Amazon
and Congo basins, parts of Indonesia, and several Pacific
islands. Up to 3.5 meters of rain fall evenly throughout
the year. Temperatures range from about 32 degrees C
in the day to 21 degrees C at night.
There are five layers of vegetation
in this jungle (Figure 14-1). Where untouched by man,
jungle trees rise from buttress roots to heights of
60 meters. Below them, smaller trees produce a canopy
so thick that little light reaches the jungle floor.
Seedlings struggle beneath them to reach light, and
masses of vines and lianas twine up to the sun. Ferns,
mosses, and herbaceous plants push through a thick carpet
of leaves, and a great variety of fungi grow on leaves
and fallen tree trunks.
Because of the lack of light on the
jungle floor, there is little undergrowth to hamper
movement, but dense growth limits visibility to about
50 meters. You can easily lose your sense of direction
in this jungle, and it is extremely hard for aircraft
to see you.
Secondary Jungles
Secondary jungle is very similar to
rain forest. Prolific growth, where sunlight penetrates
to the jungle floor, typifies this type of forest. Such
growth happens mainly along river banks, on jungle fringes,
and where man has cleared rain forest. When abandoned,
tangled masses of vegetation quickly reclaim these cultivated
areas. You can often find cultivated food plants among
this vegetation.
Semievergreen Seasonal
and Monsoon Forests
The characteristics of the American
and African semievergreen seasonal forests correspond
with those of the Asian monsoon forests. These characteristics
are--
- Their trees fall into two stories
of tree strata. Those in the upper story average 18
to 24 meters; those in the lower story average 7 to
13 meters.
- The diameter of the trees averages
0.5 meter.
- Their leaves fall during a seasonal
drought.
Except for the sago, nipa, and coconut
palms, the same edible plants grow in these areas as
in the tropical rain forests.
You find these forests in portions
of Columbia and Venezuela and the Amazon basin in South
America; in portions of southeast coastal Kenya, Tanzania,
and Mozambique in Africa; in Northeastern India, much
of Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Java, and parts of other
Indonesian islands in Asia.
Tropical Scrub and
Thorn Forests
The chief characteristics of tropical
scrub and thorn forests are--
- There is a definite dry season.
- Trees are leafless during the dry
season.
- The ground is bare except for a
few tufted plants in bunches; grasses are uncommon.
- Plants with thorns predominate.
- Fires occur frequently.
You find tropical scrub and thorn forests
on the west coast of Mexico, Yucatan peninsula, Venezuela,
Brazil; on the northwest coast and central parts of
Africa; and in Asia, in Turkestan and India.
Within the tropical scrub and thorn
forest areas, you will find it hard to obtain food plants
during the dry season. During the rainy season, plants
are considerably more abundant.
Tropical Savannas
General characteristics of the savanna
are--
- It is found within the tropical
zones in South America and Africa.
- It looks like a broad, grassy meadow,
with trees spaced at wide intervals.
- It frequently has red soil.
- It grows scattered trees that usually
appear stunted and gnarled like apple trees. Palms
also occur on savannas.
You find savannas in parts of Venezuela,
Brazil, and the Guianas in South America. In Africa,
you find them in the southern Sahara (north-central
Cameroon and Gabon and southern Sudan), Benin, Togo,
most of Nigeria, northeastern Zaire, northern Uganda,
western Kenya, part of Malawi, part of Tanzania, southern
Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and western Madagascar.
Saltwater Swamps
Saltwater swamps are common in coastal
areas subject to tidal flooding. Mangrove trees thrive
in these swamps. Mangrove trees can reach heights of
12 meters, and their tangled roots are an obstacle to
movement. Visibility in this type of swamp is poor,
and movement is extremely difficult. Sometimes, streams
that you can raft form channels, but you usually must
travel on foot through this swamp.
You find saltwater swamps in West Africa,
Madagascar, Malaysia, the Pacific islands, Central and
South America, and at the mouth of the Ganges River
in India. The swamps at the mouths of the Orinoco and
Amazon rivers and rivers of Guyana consist of mud and
trees that offer little shade. Tides in saltwater swamps
can vary as much as 12 meters.
Everything in a saltwater swamp may
appear hostile to you, from leeches and insects to crocodiles
and caimans. Avoid the dangerous animals in this swamp.
Avoid this swamp altogether if you
can. If there are water channels through it, you may
be able to use a raft to escape.
Freshwater Swamps
You find freshwater swamps in low-lying
inland areas. Their characteristics are masses of thorny
undergrowth, reeds, grasses, and occasional short palms
that reduce visibility and make travel difficult. There
are often islands that dot these swamps, allowing you
to get out of the water. Wildlife is abundant in these
swamps.
With practice, movement through thick
undergrowth and jungle can be done efficiently. Always
wear long sleeves to avoid cuts and scratches.
To move easily, you must develop "jungle
eye," that is, you should not concentrate on the
pattern of bushes and trees to your immediate front.
You must focus on the jungle further out and find natural
breaks in the foliage. Look through the jungle,
not at it. Stop and stoop down occasionally to look
along the jungle floor. This action may reveal game
trails that you can follow.
Stay alert and move slowly and steadily
through dense forest or jungle. Stop periodically to
listen and take your bearings. Use a machete to cut
through dense vegetation, but do not cut unnecessarily
or you will quickly wear yourself out. If using a machete,
stroke upward when cutting vines to reduce noise because
sound carries long distances in the jungle. Use a stick
to part the vegetation. Using a stick will also help
dislodge biting ants, spiders, or snakes. Do not
grasp at brush or vines when climbing slopes; they may
have irritating spines or sharp thorns.
Many jungle and forest animals follow
game trails. These trails wind and cross, but frequently
lead to water or clearings. Use these trails if they
lead in your desired direction of travel.
In many countries, electric and telephone
lines run for miles through sparsely inhabited areas.
Usually, the right-of-way is clear enough to allow easy
travel. When traveling along these lines, be careful
as you approach transformer and relay stations. In enemy
territory, they may be guarded.
Pinpoint your initial location as accurately
as possible to determine a general line of travel to
safety. If you do not have a compass, use a field-expedient
direction finding method.
Take stock of water supplies and equipment.
Move in one direction, but not necessarily
in a straight line. Avoid obstacles. In enemy territory,
take advantage of natural cover and concealment.
Move smoothly through the jungle. Do
not blunder through it since you will get many cuts
and scratches. Turn your shoulders, shift your hips,
bend your body, and shorten or lengthen your stride
as necessary to slide between the undergrowth.
There is less likelihood of your rescue
from beneath a dense jungle canopy than in other survival
situations. You will probably have to travel to reach
safety.
If you are the victim of an aircraft
crash, the most important items to take with you from
the crash site are a machete, a compass, a first aid
kit, and a parachute or other material for use as mosquito
netting and shelter.
Take shelter from tropical rain, sun,
and insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes and other insects
are immediate dangers, so protect yourself against bites.
Do not leave the crash area without
carefully blazing or marking your route. Use your compass.
Know what direction you are taking.
In the tropics, even the smallest scratch
can quickly become dangerously infected. Promptly treat
any wound, no matter how minor.
Even though water is abundant in most
tropical environments, you may, as a survivor, have
trouble finding it. If you do find water, it may not
be safe to drink. Some of the many sources are vines,
roots, palm trees, and condensation. You can sometimes
follow animals to water. Often you can get nearly clear
water from muddy streams or lakes by digging a hole
in sandy soil about 1 meter from the bank. Water will
seep into the hole. You must purify any water obtained
in this manner.
Animals as Signs of
Water
Animals can often lead you to water.
Most animals require water regularly. Grazing animals
such as deer, are usually never far from water and usually
drink at dawn and dusk. Converging game trails often
lead to water. Carnivores (meat eaters) are not reliable
indicators of water. They get moisture from the animals
they eat and can go without water for long periods.
Birds can sometimes also lead you to
water. Grain eaters, such as finches and pigeons, are
never far from water. They drink at dawn and dusk. When
they fly straight and low, they are heading for water.
When returning from water, they are full and will fly
from tree to tree, resting frequently. Do not rely on
water birds to lead you to water. They fly long distances
without stopping. Hawks, eagles, and other birds of
prey get liquids from their victims; you cannot use
them as a water indicator.
Insects can be good indicators of water,
especially bees. Bees seldom range more than 6 kilometers
from their nests or hives. They usually will have a
water source in this range. Ants need water. A column
of ants marching up a tree is going to a small reservoir
of trapped water. You find such reservoirs even in arid
areas. Most flies stay within 100 meters of water, especially
the European mason fly, easily recognized by its iridescent
green body.
Human tracks will usually lead to a
well, bore hole, or soak. Scrub or rocks may cover it
to reduce evaporation. Replace the cover after use.
Water From Plants
Plants such as vines, roots, and palm
trees are good sources of water.
Vines
Vines with rough bark and shoots about
5 centimeters thick can be a useful source of water.
You must learn by experience which are the water-bearing
vines, because not all have drinkable water. Some may
even have a poisonous sap. The poisonous ones yield
a sticky, milky sap when cut. Nonpoisonous vines will
give a clear fluid. Some vines cause a skin irritation
on contact; therefore let the liquid drip into your
mouth, rather than put your mouth to the vine. Preferably,
use some type of container. Use the procedure described
in Chapter 6 to obtain water from a vine.
Roots
In Australia, the water tree, desert
oak, and bloodwood have roots near the surface. Pry
these roots out of the ground and cut them into 30-centimeter
lengths. Remove the bark and suck out the moisture,
or shave the root to a pulp and squeeze it over your
mouth.
Palm Trees
The buri, coconut, and nipa palms all
contain a sugary fluid that is very good to drink. To
obtain the liquid, bend a flowering stalk of one of
these palms downward, and cut off its tip. If you cut
a thin slice off the stalk every 12 hours, the flow
will renew, making it possible to collect up to a liter
per day. Nipa palm shoots grow from the base, so that
you can work at ground level. On grown trees of other
species, you may have to climb them to reach a flowering
stalk. Milk from coconuts has a large water content,
but may contain a strong laxative in ripe nuts. Drinking
too much of this milk may cause you to lose more fluid
than you drink.
Water From Condensation
Often it requires too much effort to
dig for roots containing water. It may be easier to
let a plant produce water for you in the form of condensation.
Tying a clear plastic bag around a green leafy branch
will cause water in the leaves to evaporate and condense
in the bag. Placing cut vegetation in a plastic bag
will also produce condensation. This is a solar still
(see Chapter 6).
Food is usually abundant in a tropical
survival situation. To obtain animal food, use the procedures
outlined in Chapter 8.
In addition to animal food, you will
have to supplement your diet with edible plants. The
best places to forage are the banks of streams and rivers.
Wherever the sun penetrates the jungle, there will be
a mass of vegetation, but river banks may be the most
accessible areas.
If you are weak, do not expend energy
climbing or felling a tree for food. There are more
easily obtained sources of food nearer the ground. Do
not pick more food than you need. Food spoils rapidly
in tropical conditions. Leave food on the growing plant
until you need it, and eat it fresh.
There are an almost unlimited number
of edible plants from which to choose. Unless you can
positively identify these plants, it may be safer at
first to begin with palms, bamboos, and common fruits.
The list below identifies some of the most common foods.
Detailed descriptions and photographs are at Appendix
B.
| TROPICAL
ZONE FOOD PLANTS |
- Bael fruit (Aegle marmelos)
- Bamboo (various species)
- Banana or plantain (Musa
species)
- Bignay (Antidesma bunius)
- Breadfruit (Artrocarpus incisa)
- Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera)
- Fishtail palm (Caryota urens)
- Horseradish tree (Moringa pterygosperma)
- Lotus (Nelumbo species)
- Mango (Mangifera indica)
- Manioc (Manihot utillissima)
- Nipa palm (Nipa fruticans)
- Papaya (Carica papaya)
- Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)
- Rattan palm (Calamus species)
- Sago palm (Metroxylon sagu)
- Sterculia (Sterculia foetida)
- Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
- Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata)
- Sweetsop (Annona squamosa)
- Taro (Colocasia and Alocasia
species)
- Water lily (Nymphaea odorata)
- Wild fig (Ficus species)
- Wild rice (Zizania aquatica)
- Yam (Dioscorea species)
The proportion of poisonous plants
in tropical regions is no greater than in any other
area of the world. However, it may appear that most
plants in the tropics are poisonous because of the great
density of plant growth in some tropical areas.
[Reprinted as permitted
by U.S. Department of the Army from field manual FM
21-76]
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